Maghazi Literature free essay sample

Arabic was chiefly a spoken language with an oral literature of elaborate poetry and, to a lesser extent, prose. It is certainly known that the revelation of Quran had an important impact on the development of the Arabic literature. In the pre-Islamic era, both poetry and prose dealt with a restricted range of topics; however with the rise of Islam and the revelation of Quran, the range of topics had expanded dramatically to encourage for developments in prose and poetry. In this paper, I provide a historical overview about the development of the Maghazi literature in Islamic prose between the first/seventh century and second/eighth century. This paper also discusses the different styles and characteristics in a comparison context between three of the most recognized compilers of maghazi in the Islamic prose; Musa b. ‘Uqba, Ibn Ishaq, and al-Waqidi. It also discusses the different issues which exist in this genre of literature. We will write a custom essay sample on Maghazi Literature or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As literature, the Maghazi literature goes under the Sirah literature as it forms a sub-category within the Sirah of the Prophet. . Historical overview: As this kind of literature falls under the Sirah, many scholars related them to each other and used them in the same context to talk about the life of Muhammad and the historical events which includes the Muslims expeditions during his life; moreover, they refer to the compilers of this literature as â€Å"the compiles of maghazi and sirah† such as Ibn Ishaq, as Kritzeck (1975) explains. However, other scholars identified the maghazi literature as a separate literature of its own. Al-Waqidi, who is regarded as the most authoritative by Malik. Anas and Ibn Hanbal, compiled his own book, named Kitab al Maghazi which exists in a short fragment of twenty extracts with chains of narrators. It is not certainly indicated when the Maghazi literature did begin specifically but Kritzeck clarifies that Urwa b. al-Zubayr was recognized to be the first to classify a material on the maghazi because of the link between him and al-Zuhari, who was known as an important authority on maghazi and sirah, referred to him as an â€Å"inexhaustible sea of information,† also scholars as Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi referred to him and his accounts in their books. It is believed that this literature first began during the seventh century when the Islamic material came to be written. Three of the most important compilers of maghazi literature who came in the beginning of the second/eighth century and worked on gathering as much credible accounts about the maghazi of the Prophet as possible are: Musa b. ‘Uqba, Ibn Ishaq, and al-Waqidi. As mentioned earlier, al-Waqidi’s book was the most recognized among all due to the number of compilers who referred to it in their writings about maghazi. For example, Ibn Ishaq in his section about the maghazi in his book about the sirah of the Prophet corresponds very directly to Kitab al Maghazi for al-Waqidi and to the accounts of Musa b. ‘Uqba. Different writings came after the writings of Musa b. ‘Uqba, Ibn Ishaq, and al-Waqidi and continued to be based on the second/eight centaury such as Kitab al-Tabaqat al-kabir of Ibn Sa’d, Ansab al-Ashraf of al-Baladhuri, and Al-Bidaya wa-‘l-nihayah of Ibn Kathir, had sections about the maghazi which included material from the writings of the three major compilers of Maghazi literature. The three compilers used the isnad as a presentational mechanism to introduce their accounts just as it is used in the Sirah literature. Musa b. ‘Uqba used the collective isnad in his writings, where he mentioned a couple of the latest authorities and hid the full isnad of the account; he also introduced some accounts by the phrase â€Å"Musa b. ‘Uqba said, from al-Zuhari†¦,† as Kritzeck (1975) affirms. Ibn Ishaq, in his writings about maghazi, rarely completed his isnad, and in many times he just chose to neglect to refer to any authority; for instance, he introduced some of the accounts by saying: â€Å"One whom I do not trust related to me. † This technique of using the collective isnad in the case of Musa b. ‘Uqba or hiding some of it or sometimes all of it in the case of Ibn Ishaq raises many questions concerning the authenticity of the Maghazi literature. On the other hand, Kritzeck (1975) states that al-Waqidi used the methodology of collective isnad as well but in a more systematic way. He used to introduce the account with a list of the authorities then follow it with the statement: â€Å"each of them related to me a portion of this, some being more detailed in their accounts, and others have related to me also. I wrote down all that they related to me: they said†¦. † He also mentions that al-Waqidi’s use of collective isnad excluded Ibn Ishaq although both of them had very similar accounts; as a result, that raised doubts about issues of plagiarism in his book. 3. 2 Chronological framework: Musa b. ‘Uqba, Ibn Ishaq, and al-Waqidi had different chronological framework presentation for the maghazi. In b. Uqba, the chronological details were given for many events. Ibn Ishaq gave some dates for some raids and left some without any dates. Al-Waqidi, on the contrary, introduced complete chronological details about the expeditions and raids; including full precise dates for the maghazi, which leaves the reader to doubt the credibility of these dates since he was the only one who gave precise dates for all the raids. As cited by Kritzeck (1975), there are often some discrepancies regarding the dates for the same events between the three compilers. For instance, the battle of the Trench is recorded on Shawwal 4 by b. Uqba, Shawwal 5 by Ibn Ishaq, and Thu-l-qi’da 5 by al-Waqidi, this difference in the dates of the same event and many other events takes us back to the issue of authenticity of the Maghazi literature. The one can easily conclude, with some reading through some of the texts of these compilers of maghazi, that there are some dates where all of the three compilers provided the same dates, dates which are common between two of the compilers and different than the third, dates which were only given by al-Waqidi alone, and finally dates which contradict the sources. The apparent similarity between the three compilers and their accounts makes the reader wonder about the possibility of plagiarism in this type of literature. However, this doubt about plagiarism can be purged because the companions of Prophet Mohammad used to memorize and learn the maghazi of the Prophet; Ali b. al Husayn is documented as saying: â€Å"We used to learn the maghazi of the Prophet as we learnt a surah of the Qur’an,† as Kritzeck states. This explains the great similarities between the three compilers who referred in their works earlier authorities who memorized the same accounts of the same event. In other words, the similarities between the texts of the compilers are explained by the fact that they were referring to a same common material. 5. Issue of authenticity: The fact that early compilers of Hadith and Sirah started to put the Islamic material into writings in the first/seventh century, and then followed by works of well known compilers such as Ibn Ishaq, al-Zuhari, al-Waqidi, and Musa b. ‘Uqbah in the beginnings of the second/eighth century, makes the reader doubtful about the credibility of the accounts of the news (akhbar) of Prophet Muhammad and his companions. This gap of time since the death of the Prophet to the time the Maghazi literature came down into writings raises the question: How authentic is the work of the compilers of maghazi? Moreover, the fact that the three compilers mentioned in this paper had different ways of introducing the accounts of the same events and how each compiler accepted an account and rejected another, and the variation in the dates of similar events, leaves the reader skeptical about which source to accept and which to reject. In the case of Musa b. ‘Uqba, there is absence of the full chain of narrators of the account; in the case of Ibn Ishaq, there are some accounts where the chain of narrators is omitted completely; and in the case of al-Waqidi, he combines different pieces of an event to build a complete account. Rizwi (1999) states about al-Waqidi’s: â€Å"†¦. Investigating the traditions concerning the murder of Kacb b. l-Ashraf in particular, in al-Waqidis Kitab al-Maghazi, Lecker exposes the fact that al-Wiqidi brings together three different traditions from earlier sources and weaves them together (he calls it a combined report) to establish a new version of the event. † (p. 2) All of these characteristics in their texts and especially the ones in al-Waqidi’s book of maghazi, makes the reader aware of the personal judgments of the authors in their texts either to accept an account even if its chain of narrators is weak, or decide to reject one, or even favorite one on another. These personal judgments of the compilers of maghazi and the differences in some aspects about their accounts degrade the authenticity of their accounts which as a result degrades the authenticity of Maghazi literature. 6. Conclusion: The Maghazi literature is a literature that provides a great deal of historical, political, and social information about a part of Prophet’s Muhammad life and the Islamic society in the period after the hijrah. This literature is a significant source of information although we might not be certain about some of it because of issues in its authenticity due to different methodologies of research and different styles of presentation and citing by different compilers; however, one must not forget how this literature serves as a background of the Muslims victories across the peninsula of Arabia and a source of historical construction of the early Islamic period.

Catherine of Aragon - Marriage to Henry VIII

Catherine of Aragon - Marriage to Henry VIII Continued from: Catherine of Aragon: Early Life and First Marriage The Dowager Princess of Wales When her young husband, Arthur, Prince of Wales, died suddenly in 1502, Catherine of Aragon was left with the title of Dowager Princess of Wales. The marriage had been meant to solidify the alliance of the ruling families of Spain and England. The natural next step was to marry Catherine to Arthurs younger brother, Henry, five years younger than Catherine. The political reasons for the marriage remained. Prince Henry had been promised to Eleanor of Austria. But fairly quickly, Henry VII and Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to pursue the marriage of Prince Henry and Catherine. Arranging Marriage and Fighting Over Dowry The next years were marked by acrimonious conflict between the two families over Catherines dowry. Though the marriage had taken place, the last of Catherines dowry had not been paid, and Henry VII demanded that it be paid. Henry reduced his support for Catherine and her household, to put pressure on her parents to pay the dowry, and Ferdinand and Isaella threatened to have Catherine return to Spain. In 1502, a draft of a treaty between the Spanish and English families was ready, and the final version was signed in June 1503, promising a betrothal within two months, and then, after Catherines second dowry payment was made, and after Henry turned fifteen, the marriage would take place. They were formally betrothed on June 25, 1503. To marry, they would need a papal dispensation because Catherines first marriage to Arthur was defined in church rules as consanguinity. The papers sent to Rome, and the dispensation which was sent from Rome, assumed that Catherines marriage to Arthur was consummated. The English insisted on adding this clause to cover all possible objections in the dispensation. Catherines duenna wrote at that time to Ferdinand and Isabella protesting this clause, saying that the marriage had not been consummated. This disagreement about the consummation of Catherines first marriage was later to become very important. Changing Alliances? The papal bull with the dispensation arrived in 1505. Meanwhile, in late 1504, Isabella had died, leaving no living sons. Catherines sister, Joanna or Juana, and her husband, Archduke Philip, were named Isabellas heirs to Castile. Ferdinand was still ruler of Aragon; Isabellas will had named him to govern Castile. Ferdinand contended for the right to govern, but Henry VII allied himself with Philip, and this led to Ferdinands acceptance of Philips rule. But then Philip died. Joanna, known as Juana the Mad, was not thought fit to rule herself, and Ferdinand stepped in for his mentally incompetent daughter. All this contention in Spain made alliance with Spain no longer quite as valuable to Henry VII and England. He continued to press Ferdinand for payment of Catherines dowry. Catherine, who had after Arthur died lived mostly apart from the royal court with her mostly Spanish household, still barely spoke English, and was often ill during those years. In 1505, with the confusion in Spain, Henry VII saw his chance to have Catherine moved to court, and to reduce his financial support of Catherine and her household. Catherine sold some of her property including jewels in order to raise funds for her expenses. Because Catherines dowry was still not fully paid, Henry VII began planning to end the betrothal and send Catherine home. In 1508, Ferdinand offered to pay the remaining dowry, at last but he and Henry VII still disagreed on how much was to be paid. Catherine asked to go back to Spain and become a nun. Henry VIIs Death The situation changed suddenly when Henry VII died on April 21, 1509, and Prince Henry became King Henry VIII. Henry VIII announced to the Spanish ambassador that he wanted to marry Catherine quickly, claiming that it was his fathers deathbed wish. Many doubt that Henry VII said any such thing, given his long resistance to the marriage. Catherine the Queen Catherine and Henry were married on June 11, 1509, at Greenwich. Catherine was 24 years old and Henry was 19. They had, in an unusual move, a joint coronation ceremony more often, queens were crowned after giving birth to the first heir. Catherine became somewhat involved in politics that first year. She was responsible in 1509 for the Spanish ambassador being recalled. When Ferdinand failed to follow through on a promised joint military action to conquer Guyenne for England, and instead conquered Navarre for himself, Catherine helped to calm the relationship between her father and husband. But when Ferdinand made similar choices to abandon agreements with Henry in 1513 and 1514, Catherine decided to forget Spain and everything Spanish. Pregnancies and Births In January, 1510, Catherine miscarried a daughter. She and Henry quickly conceived again, and with great rejoicing, their son, Prince Henry, was born on January 1 of the next year. He was made prince of Wales and died on February 22. In 1513, Catherine was again pregnant. Henry went to France with his army from June to October, and made Catherine Queen Regent during his absence. On August 22, the forces of James IV of Scotland invaded England; the English defeated the Scots at Flodden, killing James and many others. Catherine had the bloody coat of the Scottish king sent to her husband in France. That Catherine spoke to the English troops to rally them to battle is likely apocryphal. That September or October, Catherine either miscarried or a child was born who died very soon after birth. Sometime between November 1514 and February 1515 (sources differ on the dates), Catherine had another stillborn son. There was a rumor in 1514 that Henry was going to repudiate Catherine, as they still had no living children, but they remained together with no actual moves to separate legally at that time. Changing Alliances and Finally, an Heir In 1515, Henry again allied England with Spain and Ferdinand. The next February, on the 18th, Catherine gave birth to a healthy daughter who they named Mary, who would later rule England as Mary I. Catherines father, Ferdinand, had died on January 23, but that news was kept from Catherine to protect her pregnancy. With Ferdinands death, his grandson, Charles, son of Joanna (Juana) and thus nephew of Catherine, became the ruler of both Castile and Aragon. In 1518, Catherine, 32 years old, was again pregnant. But on the night of November 9-10, she gave birth to a stillborn daughter. She was not to become pregnant again. This left Henry VIII with a daughter as his only direct heir. Henry himself had become king only when his brother, Arthur, died, and so he knew how risky it was to have only a single heir. He also knew that the last time a daughter was the heir to the throne of England, Matilda daughter of Henry I, a civil war ensued when much of the nobility did not support a womans rule. Because his own father had come to power only after the long unstable time of family contention over the crown with the War of the Roses, Henry had good reason to be worried about the future of the Tudor dynasty. Some historians have suggested that the failure of so many of Catherines pregnancies was because Henry was infected with syphilis. Today, thats usually thought to be unlikely. In 1519, Henrys mistress, Elizabeth or Bessie Blount, gave birth to a son. Henry acknowledged the boy as his own, to be called Lord Henry FitzRoy (son of the king). For Catherine, this meant that Henry knew that he could produce a healthy male heir with another woman. In 1518, Henry arranged to have their daughter, Mary, betrothed to the French Dauphin, which was not to the liking of Catherine, who wanted Mary to marry her nephew and Marys first cousin, Charles. In 1519, Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor, making him considerably more powerful than he was as just the ruler of Castile and Aragon. Catherine promoted Henrys alliance with Charles when she saw that Henry seemed to be leaning towards the French. The Princess Mary, at age 5, was betrothed to Charles in 1521. But then Charles married someone else, ending that possibility for marriage. Catherines Married Life By most accounts, Henry and Catherines marriage was generally a happy or at least peaceful one, through most of their years together, aside from the tragedies of miscarriage, stillbirth and infant death. There were many indications of their devotion to each other. Catherine kept a separate household, with some 140 people in it but separate households was the norm for royal couples. Despite that, Catherine was noted for personally ironing her husbands shirts. Catherine tended to prefer to associate with scholars over participating in the social life of the court. She was known as a generous supporter of learning and also generous to the poor. Among the institutions she supported were Queens College and St. Johns College. Erasmus, who visited England in 1514, praised Catherine highly. Catherine commissioned Juan Luis Vives to come to England to complete one book and then write another which made recommendations for the education of women. Vives became a tutor for the Princess Mary. As her mother had overseen her education, Catherine saw to it that her daughter, Mary, was educated well. Among her religious projects, she supported the Observant Franciscans. That Henry valued Catherine and the marriage in their early years is attested to by the many love knots made up of their initials which decorate several of their homes and were even used to decorate his armor. The Beginning of the End Henry later said that hed stopped having marital relations with Catherine about 1524. On June 18, 1525, Henry made his son by Bessie Blount, Henry FitzRoy, the Duke of Richmond and Somerset and declared him second in line for succession after Mary. There were some rumors later that hed be named King of Ireland. But having an heir born out of wedlock was also risky for the future of the Tudors. In 1525, the French and English signed a peace treaty, and by 1528, Henry and England were at war with Catherines nephew, Charles. Next: The Kings Great Matter About Catherine of Aragon: Catherine of Aragon Facts | Early Life and First Marriage | Marriage to Henry VIII | The Kings Great Matter | Catherine of Aragon Books | Mary I | Anne Boleyn | Women in the Tudor Dynasty

Teachers Perception of Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

Teachers Perception of Leadership - Essay Example d be to understand and subsequently work on factors that satisfy teachers-those who have been in the profession for a long period of time as well as those who are now about to board on this particular journey in life. What then are the factors, which satisfy teachers? Researchers have discovered many issues, which influence teachers’ job satisfaction in a significant way. However, they all agree that measuring job satisfaction is challenging because teachers are not in harmony with what satisfies them throughout their career. In spite of its difficulty to measure, investigators note that the degree of teacher satisfaction directly affects the school’s stability, the quality of instructions and hence the overall climate of the school (Bogler, 2000; Richards, 2003; Woods & Weasmer, 2004). Researchers examined the various qualities in a principal that are desired by teachers (Haser & Nasse, 2003; Nir & Kranot 2006; Jorissen, 2002; Richards, 2003). Richards (2003) compared the needs in terms of principal’s behavior of three groups of teachers - those with 1-5years experience, those with 6 - 10 years and those with 11 years or more of teaching experience. Richards utilized a phenomenological study and discovered that the beginning teachers cited â€Å"emotional support and safety† as their main need. Teachers with 6-10 years valued â€Å"respect as professionals† as the key element in their job satisfaction while those with more than 10 years regarded â€Å"respect for their knowledge and experience† as their chief need (2003, p.12). However, support for the teacher was the main factor in influencing teacher’s satisfaction for the entire range of teachers. Richards (2003), like Woods and Weasmer (2004),

Wk 4 lab Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wk 4 lab - Essay Example Justice for Davis and fair trial for Lewis and Karel.The splashing of whisky into Davis eyes was willful and intentional. But would the court treat alcohol as a weapon other than firearm? (California penal code section 245).Would it produce great bodily harm. If the answer is yes, then this is a felony charge with a sentence of up to 4 years and a fine of up to $10000, and not the $100000 compensation demanded by Davis.A compensation would preempt prosecution if they settle out of court. The use of violence on Davis by Karel leading to arm dislocation is a simple battery and can be charged as a misdemeanor or a felony. (California penal code section 242-243).There was body contact which led to injury, although no weapon was used. We can also contend that Lewis was a first offender with no record of violent temperament. We would also need to establish whether Lewis and Karel were intoxicated during commission of that offence, such that, we can argue on temporary insanity occasioned by intoxication. Even if these offences were committed in Malcolm parker’s premises, he is not the assailant and when push comes to shove, the assailants should be arraigned, charged, and sued for compensation and

Knowledge Management (Assignement Question Details as Depicted Below) Assignment

Knowledge Management (Assignement Question Details as Depicted Below) - Assignment Example Now the question arises as to what exactly is knowledge and how is it different from information (Han 2001). Information is data organized in a proper form and in a way so that interpretation and analysis of the material is easy. Whereas when information is acquired by an individual it becomes knowledge. Knowledge is formally defined as acquaintance to information present. The main aim of knowledge management is to make knowledge available in a way to all those concerned in a way that it can be utilize in the best possible way so as to benefit the organization as a whole. This includes both social and technological effort. This subject has gained a lot importance in the corporate environment in the recent years because of several benefits it offers. For instance it reduces the chances of repetitive and redundant work. Everyone in the organization will know what information is already present and they will not waste time and resources on acquiring the same data and they will move ahead from that point, extending the thread from there (Steyn 2003). Apart from this in today’s world where the external environment is so volatile and fast changing that internal stakeholders especially decision makers have to work really fast to catch up with the fast changing trend and stay competitive. In circumstances like these information becomes a vital resource . Those who know are the ones who will survive. Apart from this another advantage that knowledge management offers is the reduction in time required to train new employees or to bring about a change in the organization (Foote 2001). Another aspect of today’s corporate world is that organizations have to stay flexible and to adapt to changes of the market. For this purpose change management has become a famous topic now a day’s for research and development and adequate knowledge management improves this process. The main argument that will be presented by this paper is

Competitive Strategy of the Oil and Gas Industry

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We help clients align technology strategy with overall business strategy and advise on: Technology strategy, planning, and execution Technology platform development, structuring, and execution RD portfolio and resource management Commercialization Technology market and competitive evaluation Intellectual property strategy and management Technology strategy, planning, and execution A sound business strategy must be supported by a properly-aligned technology strategy. We work with RD heads and corporate or business unit management to forge the links necessary to define, create, and execute properly-aligned technology strategies. We also work side-by-side with management and RD teams to ensure that programs with the highest potential are properly resourced and managed, and that technology and capabilities critical to the future of the company are accessed and nurtured to deliver advantage and profitable future growth. Technology platforms Technology platforms are vital to gaining competitive advantage. We can help you develop, structure, and commercialize platforms that leverage your firms distinctive technologies and competencies to yield market-leading performance. Portfolio and resource management Achieving the appropriate balance of new and long-term, as well as incremental and breakthrough, technology investments is essential to balancing risk and performance. CRA works with clients to create and deploy portfolio and RD process design tools to increase the expected value of RD portfolios, inform make/collaborate/buy decisions, and maximize the value created from RD resources. Commercialization Unfamiliar markets, partnership tensions, and capital constraints are a few of the challenges faced by companies seeking to commercialize technology. We help companies exploit the full value of their technology portfolios through robust IP strategies that align with commercialization programs. 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Oil Gas: Risk management Clients around the world engage CRA to help them develop more effective and more comprehensive strategies, processes, infrastructure, and controls for managing risk. We cut through complexity to give clear, direct answers based on rigorous analysis of hard data. We also provide concrete action plans that enable clients to better manage credit, market, operational, and strategic risks. Mutual respect Management consultants have a deep commitment to success, integrity, and collaboration. We co-develop sustainable frameworks in partnership with clients. Industry focus have a full understanding of our clients businesses, including exchange-traded and over-the-counter products, market participants, and institutions. Risk expertise Management consultants are leaders in the provision of marketing, credit, and operational risk management expertise to top global financial services companies. Proven track record outstanding record of past performance in the implementation of management infrastructure, business processes, and regulatory compliance. Seasoned practitioners -have deep kn Management owledge of the operating environment, as well as underlying capital market participants, regulators, marketplaces, and vendors Oil Gas: Organization performance improvement Organization and performance improvement is a never-ending necessity for oil and gas companies. Shifts in global supply and demand, record-high energy and materials prices, and chronically underperforming assets are only a few of the current challenges. Executives also face considerable pressure to boost shareholder returns, whether through revenue growth, margin improvement, asset efficiency, or some combination. CRA helps clients identify and utilize the levers that can improve business performance. 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Our consultants advise on: Corporate strategy to address risks and uncertainties surrounding greenhouse gas (GHG) policy Environmental strategic compliance options with federal, regional, state, and local regulations/legislation Emissions trading planning surrounding cap-and-trade policies for SO2, NOX, Mercury and CO2, among others Environmental policy analysis to shape future policy design Regulatory/litigation support in conflict situations involving costs/damages resulting from claims related to the environment Identification of business opportunities that could relate to environmental trends, such as renewable power generation, demand-side management, and energy efficiency

Death in Emily Dickinsons Because I Could Not Stop for Death and I Hea

Death in Emily Dickinson's Because I Could Not Stop for Death and I Heard a Fly Buzz When I Died Emily Dickinson's two poems, "Because I Could Not Stop For Death" and "I Heard A Fly Buzz-When I Died," revolve around one central theme, death. Though the two do centralize around the theme of death they both have slightly different messages or beliefs about what is to come after death. By discussing both of the poems and interpreting their meanings, the reader can gain a fuller understanding of the message Dickinson is trying to send to her audience and a greater feel for what may lie ahead in the afterlife. When Dickinson writes in her first line, "I heard a fly buzz when I died," it grasps the reader's attention by describing the moment of her death. After reading the first stanza the reader can almost hear or sense the feeling of the fly buzzing in such a still and quiet room. The contrasting sounds of the noisy fly and the stillness in the air draw the reader deeper into the poem. The image created by this contrast is like the color white on the color black. It stands out immen sely and catches the reader's eye. After the first stanza the reader is in full knowledge of the death of the poet. The second stanza reads, "The eyes beside had wrung them dry, and breaths were gathering sure for that last onset, when the king be witnessed in his power." This stanza deals with how God is brought upon by the speaker?s death. Onlookers surround the dead body and seem to be look...

Environmental Pollution, Problems and Control Measures Essay

A. Introduction and definition of environmental pollution – We know that, a living organism cannot live by itself. Organisms interact among themselves. Hence, all organisms, such as plants, animals and human beings, as well as the physical surroundings with whom we interact, form a part of our environment. All these constituents of the environment are dependent upon each other. Thus, they maintain a balance in nature. As we are the only organisms try to modify the environment to fulfill our needs; it is our responsibility to take necessary steps to control the environmental imbalances. The environmental imbalance gives rise to various environmental problems. Some of the environmental problems are pollution, soil erosion leading to floods, salt deserts and sea recedes, desertification, landslides, change of river directions, extinction of species, and vulnerable ecosystem in place of more complex and stable ecosystems, depletion of natural resources, waste accumulation, defores tation, thinning of ozone layer and global warming. The environmental problems are visualized in terms of pollution, growth in population, development, industrialization, unplanned urbanization etc. Rapid migration and increase in population in the urban areas has also lead to traffic congestion, water shortages, solid waste, and air, water and noise pollution are common noticeable problems in almost all the urban areas since last few years. Environmental pollution is defined as the undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of our air, land and water. As a result of over-population, rapid industrializations, and other human activities like agriculture and deforestation etc., earth became loaded with diverse pollutants that were released as by-products. Pollutants are generally grouped under two classes: (a) Biodegradable pollutants – Biodegradable pollutants are broken down by the activity of micro-organisms and enter into the biogeochemical cycles. Examples of such pollutants are domestic waste pr oducts, urine and faucal matter, sewage, agricultural residue, paper, wood and cloth etc. (b) Non- Biodegradable pollutants – Non-biodegradable pollutants are stronger chemical bondage, do not break down into simpler and harmless products. These include various insecticides and other pesticides, mercury, lead, arsenic, aluminum, plastics, radioactive waste etc. B. Classification of Environmental Pollution – Pollution can be broadly classified according to  the components of environment that are polluted. Major of these are: Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution (land degradation) and Noise pollution. Details of these types of pollutions are discussed below with their prevention measures. (1) Air Pollution: Air is mainly a mixture of various gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen. These are present in a particular ratio. Whenever there is any imbalance in the ratio of these gases, air pollution is caused. The sources of air pollution can be grouped as under (i) Natural; such as, forest fires, ash from smoking volcanoes, dust storm and decay of organic matters. (ii) Man-made due to population explosion, deforestation, urbanization and industrializations. Certain activities of human beings release several pollutants in air, such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), lead, arsenic, asbestos, radioactive matter, and dust. The major threat comes from burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum products. Thermal power plants, automobiles and industries are major sources of air pollution as well. Due to progress in atomic energy sector, there has been an increase in radioactivity in the atmosphere. Mining activity adds to air pollution in the form of particulate matter. Progress in agriculture due to use of fertilizers and pesticides has also contributed towards air pollution. Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests has led to increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in atmosphere. Global warming is a consequence of green house effect caused by increased level of carbon dioxide (CO2). Ozone (O3) depletion has resulted in UV radiation striking our earth. Harmful Effects of air pollution – (a) It affects respiratory system of living organisms and causes bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer, pneumonia etc. Carbon monoxide (CO) emitted from motor vehicles and cigarette smoke affects the central nervous system. (b) Due to depletion of ozone layer, UV radiation reaches the earth. UV radiation causes skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system. (c) Acid rain is also a result of air pollution. This is caused by presence of oxides of nitrogen and sulfur in the air. These oxides dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid and sulfuric acid respectively. Various monuments, buildings, and statues are damaged due to corrosion by acid present in the rain. The soil also becomes acidic. The cumulative effect is the gradual degradation of soil and a decline in forest and agricultural productivity. (d) The green house gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) trap the heat radiated from earth. This leads to an increase in earth’s temperature. (e) Some toxic metals and pesticides also cause air pollution. [For more refer Industrial Dust, Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases ] (2) Water Pollution: Water is one of the prime necessities of life. With increasing number of people depend on this resource; water has become a scarce commodity. Pollution makes even the limited available water unfit for use. Water is said to be polluted when there is any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for use. Sources of water pollution are mainly factories, power plants, coal mines and oil wells situated either close to water source or away from sources. They discharge pollutants directly or indirectly into the water sources like river, lakes, water streams etc. The harmful effects of water pollution are: (a) Human beings become victims of various water borne diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, jaundice, etc. (b) The presence of acids/alkalies in water destroys the microorganisms, thereby hindering the self-purification process in the rivers or water bodies. Agriculture is affected badly due to polluted  water. Marine eco-systems are affected adversely. (c) The sewage waste promotes growth of phytoplankton in water bodies; causing reduction of dissolved oxygen. (d) Poisonous industrial wastes present in water bodies affect the fish population and deprives us of one of our sources of food. It also kills other animals living in fresh water. (e) The quality of underground water is also affected due to toxicity and pollutant content of surface water. (2.1) Water pollution by industries and its effects – A change in the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological quality of water that is injurious to its uses. The term â€Å"water pollution† generally refers to human-induced changes to water quality. Thus, the discharge of toxic chemicals from industries or the release of human or livestock waste into a nearby water body is considered pollution. The contamination of ground water of water bodies like rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and oceans can threaten the health of humans and aquatic life. Sources of water pollution may be divided into two categories. (i) Point-source pollution, in which contaminants are discharged from a discrete location. Sewage outfalls and oil spills are examples of point-source pollution. (ii) Non-point-source or diffuse pollution, referring to all of the other discharges that deliver contaminants to water bodies. Acid rain and unconfined runoff from agricultural or urban areas falls under this category. The principal contaminants of water include toxic chemicals, nutrients, biodegradable organics, and bacterial & viral pathogens. Water pollution can affect human health when pollutants enter the body either via skin exposure or through the direct consumption of contaminated drinking water and contaminated food. Prime pollutants, including DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), persist in the natural environment and bioaccumulation occurs in the tissues of aquatic organisms. These prolonged and persistent organic pollutants are transferred up the food chain and they can reach levels of concern in fish species that are eaten by humans. Moreover, bacteria and viral pathogens can pose a public health risk for those who drink contaminated water or eat raw shellfish from polluted water bodies. Contaminants have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems. Enrichment of water bodies with nutrients (principally nitrogen and phosphorus) can result in the growth of algae and other aquatic plants that shade or clog streams. If wastewater containing biodegradable organic matter is discharged into a stream with inadequate  dissolved oxygen, the water downstream of the point of discharge will become anaerobic and will be turbid and dark. Settleable solids will be deposited on the streambed, and anaerobic decomposition will occur. Over the reach of stream where the dissolved-oxygen concentration is zero, a zone of putrefaction will occur with the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and other odorous gases. Because many fish species require a minimum of 4–5 mg of dissolved oxygen per liter of water, they will be unable to survive in this portion of the stream. Direct exposures to toxic chemicals are also a health concern for individual aquatic plants and animals. Chemicals such as pesticides are frequently transported to lakes and rivers via runoff, and they can have harmful effects on aquatic life. Toxic chemicals have been shown to reduce the growth, survival, reproductive output, and disease resistance of exposed organisms. These effects can have important consequences for the viability of aquatic populations and communities. Wastewater discharges are most commonly controlled through effluent standards and discharge permits. Under this system, discharge permits are issued with limits on the quantity and quality of effluents. Water-quality standards are sets of qualitative and quantitative criteria designed to maintain or enhance the quality of receiving waters. Criteria can be developed and implemented to protect aquatic life against acute and chronic effects and to safeguard humans against deleterious health effects, including cancer. [ For more refer ‘Water Conservation – Need-of-the-day for our very survival’ ] (3) Soil pollution (Land degradation): Land pollution is due to (i) Deforestation and (ii) Dumping of solid wastes. Deforestation increases soil erosion; thus valuable agricultural land is lost. Solid wastes from household and industries also pollute land and enhance land degradation. Solid wastes include things from household waste and of industrial wastes. They include ash, glass, peelings of fruit and vegetables, paper, clothes, plastics, rubber, leather, brick, sand, metal, waste from cattle shed, night soil and cow dung. Chemicals discharged into air, such as compounds of sulfur and lead, eventually come to soil and pollute it. The heaps of solid waste destroy the natural beauty and surroundings become dirty. Pigs, dogs, rats, flies, mosquitoes visit the  dumped waste and foul smell comes from the waste. The waste may block the flow of water in the drain, which then becomes the breeding place for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are carriers of parasites of malaria and dengue. Consumption of polluted water causes many diseases, such as cholera, diarrhea and dysentery. [ For more refer Solid Waste Disposal -A Burning Problem To Be Resolved To Save Environment ] (4) Noise pollution : High level noise is a disturbance to the human environment. Because of urbanization, noise in all areas in a city has increased considerably. One of the most pervasive sources of noise in our environment today is those associated with transportation. People reside adjacent to highways, are subjected to high level of noise produced by trucks and vehicles pass on the highways. Prolonged exposure to high level of noise is very much harmful to the health of mankind. In industry and in mines the main sources of noise pollution are blasting, movement of heavy earth moving machines, drilling, crusher and coal handling plants etc. The critical value for the development of hearing problems is at 80 decibels. Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects. Moreover, noise can be a causal factor in workplace accidents. C. Fundamentals of prevention and control of air pollution: As mentioned above, air pollutants can be gaseous or particulate matters. Different techniques for controlling these pollutants are discussed below: a. Methods of controlling gaseous pollutants – 1. Combustion – This technique is used when the pollutants are in the form of organic gases or vapors. During flame combustion or catalytic process, these organic pollutants are converted into water vapor and relatively less harmful products, such as CO2. 2. Absorption – In this technique, the gaseous effluents are passed through scrubbers or absorbers. These contain a suitable liquid absorbent, which removes or modifies one or more of the pollutants present in the gaseous effluents. 3. Adsorption – The gaseous effluents are passed through porous solid adsorbents kept in suitable containers. The organic and inorganic constituents of the effluent gases are trapped at the interface of the solid adsorbent by physical adsorbent. b. Methods to control particulate emissions – 1. Mechanical devices generally work on the basis of the following: (i) Gravity: In this process, the particles settle down by gravitational force. (ii) Sudden change in direction of the gas flow. This causes the particles to separate out due to greater momentum. 2. Fabric Filters: The gases containing dust are passed through a porous medium. These porous media may be woven or filled fabrics. The particles present in the gas are trapped and collected in the filters. The gases freed from the particles are discharged. 3. Wet Scrubbers: Wet scrubbers are used in chemical, mining and metallurgical industries to trap SO2, NH3, metal fumes, etc. 4. Electrostatic Precipitators: When a gas or an air stream containing aerosols in the form of dust, fumes or mist, is passed between two electrodes, then, the aerosol particles get precipitated on the electrode. c. Other practices in controlling air pollution -Apart from the above, following practices also help in controlling air pollution. (i) Use of better designed equipment and smokeless fuels, hearths in industries and at home. (ii) Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to recent emission-control standards. (iii) More trees should be planted along road side and houses. (iv) Renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar energy, ocean currents, should fulfill energy needs. (v) Tall chimneys should be installed for vertical dispersion of pollutants. d. General air pollution control devices / equipments for industries – The commonly used equipments / process for control of dust in various industries are (a) Mechanical dust collectors in the form of dust cyclones; (b) Electrostatic precipitators – both dry and wet system; (c) particulate scrubbers; (d) Water sprayer at dust generation points; (e) proper ventilation system and (f) various monitoring devices to know the concentration of dust in general body of air. The common equipments / process used for control of toxic / flue gases are the (a) process of desulphurisation; (b) process of denitrification; (c) Gas conditioning etc. and (d) various monitoring devices to know the efficacy of the systems used. e. Steps, in general, to be taken for reduction of air pollution – To change our behavior in order to reduce AIR POLLUTION at home as well as on the road, few following small steps taken by us would lead to clean our Environment. At Home: 1. Avoid using chemical pesticides or fertilizers in your yard and garden. Many fertilizers are a source of nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. Try organic products instead. 2. Compost your yard waste instead of burning it. Outdoor burning is not advisable, as it pollutes air. Breathing this smoke is bad for you, your family and your neighbors. Plus, you can use the compost in your garden. 3. If you use a wood stove or fireplace to heat your home, it would be better to consider switching to another form of heat which does not generate smoke. It is always better to use sweater or warm clothing than using fireplace. 4. Be energy efficient. Most traditional sources of energy burn fossil fuels, causing air pollution. Keep your home well-maintained with weather-stripping, storm windows, and insulation. Lowering your thermostat can also help – and for every two degrees Fahrenheit you lower it, you save about two percent on your heating bill. 5. Plant trees and encourage other to plant trees as well. Trees absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and filter out air pollution. During warmer days, trees provide cool air, unnecessary use of energy on air conditioning is avoided, hence the air pollution. 6. Try to stop smoking; at home, at office or at outside. Tobacco smoking not only deteriorates self’s health, it affects others health too. On the Road: 7. Keep your vehicle well maintained. A poorly maintained engine both creates more air pollution and uses more fuel. Replace oil and air filters regularly, and keep your tires properly inflated. 8. Drive less. Walking, bicycling, riding the bus, or working from home can save you money as well as reducing air pollution. 9. Don’t idle your vehicle. If you stop for more than 30 seconds, except in traffic, turn off your engine. 10. Don’t buy more car than you need. Four-wheel drive, all-wheel drive, engine size, vehicle weight, and tire size all affect the amount of fuel your vehicle uses. The more fuel it uses the more air pollution it causes. D. Water pollution prevention and control: Water is a key resource for our quality of life. It also provides natural habitats and eco-systems for plant and animal species. Access to clean water for drinking and sanitary purposes is a precondition for human health and well-being. Clean unpolluted water is essential for our ecosystems. Plants  and animals in lakes, rivers and seas react to changes in their environment caused by changes in chemical water quality and physical disturbance of their habitat. Water pollution is a human-induced change in the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological quality of water that is injurious to its existing, intended, or potential uses such as boating, waterskiing, swimming, the consumption of fish, and the health of aquatic organisms and ecosystems. Thus, the discharge of toxic chemicals from a pipe or the release of livestock waste into a nearby water body is considered pollution. The contamination of ground water, rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and oceans can threaten the hea lth of humans and aquatic life. Contaminants have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems. for example, enrichment of water bodies with nutrients (principally nitrogen and phosphorus) can result in the growth of algae and other aquatic plants that shade or clog streams. Direct exposures to toxic chemicals such as pesticides, is also a health concern for individual aquatic plants and animals. Without healthy water for drinking, cooking, fishing, and farming, the human race would perish. Clean water is also necessary for recreational interests such as swimming, boating, and water skiing. a. Sources of Water Pollution – Sources of water pollution are generally divided into two categories. The first is point-source pollution, in which contaminants are discharged from a discrete location. Sewage outfalls and oil spills are examples of point-source pollution. The second category is non-point-source or diffuses pollution, referring to all of the other discharges that deliver contaminants to water bodies. Numerous manufacturing plants pour off undiluted corrosives, poisons, and other noxious byproducts to water streams. The construction industry discharges slurries of gypsum, cement, abrasives, metals, and poisonous solvents. The mining industry also presents persistent water pollution problems. In yet another instance of pollution, hot water discharged by factories and power plants causes so-called ‘thermal pollution’ by increasing water temperatures. Such increases change the level of oxygen dissolved in a body of water, thereby disrupting the water’s ecological balance, killing off some plant and animal species while encouraging the overgrowth of oth ers. Towns and municipalities are also major sources of water pollution. In many public water systems, pollution exceeds safe levels. One reason for this is that much groundwater has been  contaminated by wastes pumped underground for disposal or by seepage from surface water. When contamination reaches underground water tables, it is difficult to correct and spreads over wide areas. Discharge of untreated or only partially treated sewage into the waterways threatens the health of their own and neighboring populations as well. Along with domestic wastes, sewage carries industrial contaminants and a growing tonnage of paper and plastic refuse. Although thorough sewage treatment would destroy most disease-causing bacteria, the problem of the spread of viruses and viral illness remains. Additionally, most sewage treatment does not remove phosphorus compounds, contributed principally by detergents. b. Dangers of Water Pollution – Virtually all water pollutants are hazardous to humans as well as lesser species; sodium is implicated in cardiovascular disease, nitrates in blood disorders. Mercury and lead can cause nervous disorders. Some contaminants are carcinogens. DDT is toxic to humans and can alter chromosomes. Along many shores, shellfish can no longer be taken because of contamination by DDT, sewage, or industrial wastes. c. Prevention and Control of Water Pollution – Sewage should be treated before it is discharged into the river or ocean. This is possible through modern techniques. Sewage is first passed through a grinding mechanism. This is then passed through several settling chambers and neutralized with lime. Up to this stage, the process is called primary treatment. The sewage still contains a large number of pathogenic and non-pathogenic or ganisms, and also sufficient quantity of organic matter. The neutralized effluents are sent to UASB (up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket). It is a reactor. In this, the anaerobic bacteria degrade the biodegradable material present in the waste water. This removes foul odor and releases methane, which can be used elsewhere. In this system, the pollution load is reduced upto 85 percent. After this, water is sent to aeration tanks where it is mixed with air and bacteria. Bacteria digest the organic waste material. This is called biological or secondary treatment. Even after the treatment, water is not yet fit for drinking. The harmful microorganisms need to be killed. The final step (tertiary treatment) is, therefore, a disinfection process, to remove final traces of organics, bacteria, dissolved inorganic solids, etc. For tertiary treatment, methods, such as chlorination, evaporation, and exchange absorption may be employed. These depend upon the required quality  of the final treatment. Apart from the above, you should also adopt the following practices: (i) Waste food material, paper, decaying vegetables and plastics should not be thrown into open drains. (ii) Effluents from distilleries, and solid wastes containing organic matter should be sent to biogas plants for generation of energy. (iii) Oil slicks should be skimmed off from the surface with suction device. Sawdust may be spread over oil slicks to absorb the oil components. E. Soil erosion and its prevention: Soil erosion by water, wind and tillage affects both agriculture and the natural environment. Soil loss, and its associated impacts, is one of the most important (yet probably the least well-known) of today’s environmental problems. It is mostly due to poor land use practices, which include deforestation, overgrazing, unmanaged construction activity and road or trail building. Soil is a complex mixture of living and non-living mater ials. It provides anchorage and sustenance to plants. Natural agents like water and wind, constantly tend to remove the top soil and cause erosion. Rain falling upon the unprotected top soil, washes it down into the streams. Due to the absence of plant covering, eroded soil cannot hold water. Water rushes into the rivers and overflows as flood. Dust storm also causes soil erosion. The particles of top soil are picked up in such quantities that they form clouds of dust. Human beings also cause soil erosion. The growing human habitation and expansion of urban areas lead to removal of vegetation. Once vegetation is removed, the naked soil gets exposed to wind and water. Improper tillage is another cause of soil erosion. Farmers often loosen the top soil for removing weeds and preparing seed beds. They also leave agricultural fields lying fallow for long time. These practices expose the top soil to the wind and cause erosion. Soil erosion is always a result of mankind’s unwise actions, such as overgrazing or unsuitable cultivation practices. These leave the land unprotected and vulnerable. Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect both agricultural areas and the natural environment, and is one of the most widespread of today’s environmental problems. Soil erosion is just one form of soil degradation. Other kinds of soil degradation include salinisation, nutrient loss, and compaction. Prevention of soil erosion – Plants provide protective cover on the land and prevent soil erosion for the reasons: (a) plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) and this allows  much of the rain to soak into the ground; (b) plant roots hold the soil in position and prevent it from being washed away; (c) plants break the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, thus reducing its ability to erode; (d) plants in wetlands and on the banks of rivers are of particular importance as they slow down the flow of the water and their roots bind the soil, thus preventing erosion. Preventing soil erosion requires technical changes to adopt. Aspects of technical changes include: (i) use of contour ploughing and wind breaks; (ii) leaving unploughed grass strips between ploughed land;  (iii) making sure that there are always plants growing on the soil, and that the soil is rich in humus (decaying plant and animal remains). This organic matter is the â€Å"glue† that binds the soil particles together and plays an important part in preventing erosion; (iv) avoiding overgrazing and the over-use of crop lands; (v) allowing indigenous plants to grow along the river banks instead of ploughing and planting crops right up to the water’s edge; (vi) encouraging biological diversity by planting several different types of plants together; (vii) conservation of wetlands. We can check soil erosion by adopting the following additional practices: 1. Intensive cropping and use of proper drainage canals. 2. Terracing on the sloping fields. This retards the speed of the flowing water. 3. Planting trees and sowing grasses. 4. Extensive aforestation practices to be carried out. [ For more refer Soil Erosion Combating is Essential ] F. Mitigation of Noise pollution: Reducing noise pollution by muffling the sounds at the source is one of the best methods in industry and for urban living. Protective equipment is generally mandatory when noise levels exceed 85 dB(A) in industry. Creation of green cover adjacent to municipal roads and in mines is the way to mitigate noise pollution. It has been observed that noise level reduces by 10 decibels per every 10m wide green belt development. Apart, redesigning industrial equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical barriers in the workplace are also for reduction and  exposure of unwanted industrial noise. High way noise pollution can be mitigated by constructing noise barriers. Artificial noise barriers are solid obstructions built between the highway and the residential areas along a highway. They block major portion of noise produced by passing vehicles on a highway. Effective noise barriers typically reduce noise levels by as much as half or more. The construction of noise barrier may be built in the form of earth mounds, vertical wall along the highways for creation of blockage of sound generated by heavy vehicles. Creation of greenbelt in the space between the residences and highways also reduces the noise nuisance. G. Conservation and protection of environment: By now, all of us have realized how important it is to protect the environment for our own survival. The term ‘conservation’ of environment relates to activities which can provide individual or commercial benefits, but at the same time, prevent excessive use leading to environmental damage. Conservation may be distinguished from preservation, which is considered to be â€Å"maintaining of nature as it is, or might have been before the intervention of either human beings or natural forces.† We know that natural resources are getting depleted and environmental problems are increasing. It is, therefore, necessary to conserve and protect our environment. Following practices help in protecting our environment. 1. Rotation of crops. 2. Judicious use of fertilisers, intensive cropping, proper drainage and irrigation. 3. Treatment of sewage, so that it does not pollute the rivers and other water bodies. 4. Composting organic solid waste for use as manure. 5. Planting trees in place of those removed for various purposes. 6. National parks and conservation forests should be established by the government. 7. Harvesting of rain water. Some action points to protect or improve the environment – (i) Dispose the waste after separating them into biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste material. (ii) Start a compost heap or use a compost bin. This can be used to recycle waste food and other biodegradable materials. (iii) Avoid unnecessary or wasteful packaging of products. (iv) Reuse carry bags. (v) Plant trees. They will help to absorb excess carbon dioxide. (vi) Observe World Environment Day on 5th June. (vii) Never put any left over chemicals, used oils down the drain, toilet or dump them on the ground or in water or burn them in the garden. If you do so, it will cause pollution. (viii) Don’t burn any waste, especially plastics, for the smoke may contain polluting gases. (ix) Use unleaded petrol and alternate sources of energy, and keep the engine properly tuned and serviced and the tyres inflated to the right pressure, so that vehicle runs efficiently. (x) Avoid fast starts and sudden braking of automobiles. (xi) Walk or cycle where it is safe to do so – walking is free; cycling can help to keep you fit. (xii) Use public transport wherever you can, or form a car pool for everyday travel. (xiii) Send your waste oil, old batteries and used tyres to a garage for recycling or safe disposal; all these can cause serious pollution. References: 1. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/fundamentals-of-our-environment-and.html 2. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/soil-erosion-and-its-prevention.html 3. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/water-pollution-its-prevention-and.html 4. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/fundamentals-of-prevention-and-control.html 5. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/conservation-and-protection-of.html 6. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/02/noise-barriers-are-to-mitigate-highway.html 7. http://knol.google.com/k/partha-das-sharma/fundamentals-of-our-environment/oml631csgjs7/18# 8. http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2006/07/NL0607029I.htm 9. http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/water-pollution-by-industries-and-its.html

Critically evaluate how psychological theories Essay Example

Critically evaluate how psychological theories Essay Example Critically evaluate how psychological theories Essay Critically evaluate how psychological theories Essay Psychology has been applied in many different areas of everyday life to try and explain why we behave in the ways that we do. However it is important to note that although psychology does give a broader insight into understanding most human behaviour, it is not possible to have one single conclusive theory. It is more often the case that many different theories can be combined in order to produce a more comprehensive explanation of behaviour. This is true when psychology is used to explain addictive behaviours; there is not one conclusive theory that explains substance addiction and dependence. An addiction is a syndrome involving behaviour and feelings of impaired control (West 2006). Addictive drugs are those whose reinforcing effects are so potent that some people who are exposed to the drugs are unable to go for very long without taking them, and whose lives become organised around taking the drug. Drug dependence is said to occur when the individual continues use of the substance despite significant substance related problems (Davies 1997). This essay will draw together and discuss the various psychological theories, concepts and explanations in order to evaluate how effective these have been in explaining drug addiction and dependence. As with many areas of psychology, problems arise when behaviour needs to be defined. This is particularly true with addiction. How do we know when someone is addicted? Where are the boundaries? Addiction is yet another socially constructed term that is difficult to define because what constitutes an addiction to one person is not addiction to another. In order to understand why it is that addictive behaviours occur, we must first acknowledge that there are two types of dependence. Eddy et al (1965) defined psychological dependence as A feeling of satisfaction and a psychic drive that requires periodic or continuous administration of the drug to produce pleasure or avoid discomfort (cited in Ghodse 1995). This kind of dependence demonstrates an overriding compulsion to take the drug, even when the individual is certain in the knowledge that it is harmful, or when aware of the consequences of possession of the substance (Ghodse 1995). The other type of dependence is physical dependence, also defined by Eddy et al as An adaptive state manifested by intense physical disturbances when the drug is withdrawn. The body becomes so accustomed to the drug and withdrawal symptoms are much more apparent. The unpleasant nature of the withdrawal syndrome can lead to an individual actually increasing the intensity of their drug taking, in order to avoid or relieve this withdrawal discomfort (Ghodse 1990). Psychoactive substances all have very different chemical properties. Not all drugs are obviously addictive. For example, long term, regular use of cannabis leads to tolerance and increasing difficulty stopping despite wishing or attempting to do so. Although the risk of dependence is substantially less than for nicotine or opiates, it is similar to that of alcohol (DiClemente 2003). Heroin addicts often take daily doses that would kill a normal person and experience very unpleasant symptoms if they go cold turkey and try to stop. In these terms, tobacco and cocaine were not obviously addictive, yet it was clear that these were extremely difficult habits to break. (Drugs: dilemmas and choices 2000). This is  where the distinction between physical and psychological dependence emerged. It is possible for a person to be psychologically dependent on a drug, without manifesting any physical dependence on it. However, it is generally accepted that although someone may be physically dependant on a drug, the state of dependence cannot be said to exist without some kind of psychological dependence present (Ghodse 1995). Under the Rational Informed Stable Choice (RISC) model, we do things because we expect them to produce benefits, and we know about and are willing to accept the adverse consequences, whether this is smoking, drinking, or drug taking. For example, a drug user continues to take drugs because it is preferable to the alternative to living without drugs, not necessarily because they cannot stop (West 2006). In other words, the pleasure or escape the addict obtains from a drug is worth whatever the consequences might be. This model is rather simplistic, as its main point is that each individual chooses to keep taking the drug, and does not take into account any biological factors that may or may not be relevant.

Bus 174 Commentary

Bus 174 Commentary Introduction Directed by Jose Padilha, Bus 174 is a fascinating documentary published in 2002 in Brazil. It includes people like Sandro, Williams, Luciana, among others. Sandro is a street boy who hijacks a bus, demanding to kill the passengers, a case that forces their journey to stand still for four hours. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Bus 174 Commentary specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The media collect this information. During the event, the police force fails to turn up in time, a situation that gives the street children a good opportunity to harass and steal from the passengers. This movie gives the findings of Padilha’s research on the situation of media and traffic in Rio de Janeiro basing on how the two responds towards the hijacking. Street children are all over the city, some begging and stealing while others are harassing the innocent people. Neither police nor media is interested in assisting . Bus 174 provides a picture of the level of poverty in the city through the street children who had parents and relatives but now are alone to feed and sustain themselves. This on the other hand sets clear the reason as to why the kids have turned to robbers. The documentary aims at portraying the life of those living in slums in Brazil. It also shows mistreats of the poor by the government. Padilha is interested in knowing Sandro’s motives behind the hijacking where he searches the information from the present as well as previous street kids. He also questions the police, family members, not neglecting sociologists to gather clear reasons. This film finds out the background of Sandro as a representative of all Brazilian street children. It explores the kind of police Brazil has, who participate in crimes rather than nurturing peace, love, and harmony. Many people have set out to comment the movie and among them is Soares. This overview tackles the relationship between his ideas and the current global state of street children as well as what is being done to meet their needs.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Soares’s comments Sociologist Luiz Eduardo Soares after seeing and understanding the documentary, goes further to comment it. Based on what Sandro does to the passengers in the bus, Soares views him as an illustration of the kids neglected by their parents. He says that they end up accumulating pain as a result, which later is poured to other people inform of fighting. In response to this comment, Erving (1963) portrays how neglected people, not necessarily street kids, express their pains and how they use it to communicate to those available to cater for their unattended needs. An example from the movie is seen when Sandro points a gun to a pregnant mother shooting her to death. Soares goes on to comment about the reason for their violence (Padilha, 2002). Any sound mind person expects love; he/she needs to be felt by the society and expects no discrimination based on race, religion, or finance. This is what Soares gives as another reason, generally given by all, who end up lacking the aforementioned requirements. He says that they do this because of the stigma attached to them. According to Heatherton, Kleck, Hebl, and Hull (2000) this category of people experience negligence and are prone to attacks, a situation that presses them forcing them to show it through reactions .Soares comments that these children are usually fighting against invisibility. This simply shows how they a treated as if they do not exist. They view the society as feigning blind when they meet them. They pretend not to understand that these are children like any others and ought to be taken care of. Their fight serves to open the eyes of the society to see their sufferings and their need of attention. For instance, in the movie, the young and poor Sandro watched his mother murdered. There was none to see and respond towards the incidence (Brussat Brussat, 2009). Therefore, in retaliation, Sandro engages in violent acts because just like any other neglected child, he believes that it is only through force that the invisibility aspect can be arrested. They have at the back of their minds that they are valuable and important but none seems to realise this and this is what they want to instil to the concerned people. They are hungry, not only for food but for love and social interaction that the society ought to give. They have been quiet hoping common sense will do it all only for them to realise that it is through raising alarms inform of violence that the ears and eyes of the society will be opened for them.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Bus 174 Commentary specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Current global trend of street children Ranselà ¢â‚¬â„¢s research provides the world news about street children. He has given the estimates of the number of the street children in various countries of the world. For instance, Yemen registers an approximate of 30,000 street children (Ransel, 1998). It goes further to give the factors thought to influence the number, not only in Yemen but also through out the entire world. Poverty, lack of jobs, inadequate socialization, government’s failure to intervene the situation of orphans, among others plays a major role in raising the number of these children. Street children have the right of attention by the government but on the contrary, the government views them as sources of embarrassment and pays no attention to them. As poverty increases day by day, the number of those going to the streets also goes up with the children opting to beg in order to sustain their deteriorating lives. This is in accordance with soare’s idea that they feel neglected by the rest, including the government. The current global economy is in crisis. All countries are running short of finance to run their businesses. As a result, retrenchment cases are being reported everywhere with parents of large families leaving jobs. Any home with no source of income is subject to conflicts. Charles (1855) says that these conflicts end up breaking the families and as a result, the children suffer inadequate parental care and guidance. They enter their nearby towns yearning for socialization, food, and parental attention. To take care of these, they venture into businesses like drug trafficking, prostitution, as well as stealing. This happens because people view them as dirty, cannot allow them in their homes, and not worthy of assistance. Soares got it right when he said that these children are stigmatised and suffer a lot as a result. Death of parents though diseases, accidents, or old age has also been viewed by the globe as a major cause of the increasing number of not only stree t children, but also children at large. It has been shown that places prone to diseases register the largest number of children at risk. Impact of the view of invisibility of street children on programme development Following the efforts made by the children in fighting against invisibility, the world has responded through various ways. It has come up with suitable criteria that, if well managed, can help rid the issue of street children. Statistics show that in all the countries, children at risk are the minority but the number is gradually increasing. Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This has called for a quick action from the government to curb the matter before it worsens. It has seen the importance of recognising them just like theirs. Organizations, not only governmental but also non-governmental have stood out to address the requirements of street children, some of which have proven effective. Media is one of the key means of responding to the battle. Any scenario that abuses the rights of children is aired immediately and stern actions taken against the abuser boosting respect between other people and the children. This is clear in the movie where the hijacking event channels to televisions, which in turn alerts the police force (Hayden, 2009). Other programmes have been established to prevent the children from adopting the street life. These include family care and free education programmes. Other programmes have set out to specifically deal with those children who had gone through sexual, physical, or drug abuses. These offer rehabilitation services to the children helping them recover from the harassments. Some Non-Governmental-Organizations have set up programmes that assemble the children in homes managed by the organizations. In these homes, the children have people, paid by the organization, who attend to them on a day-to-day basis. These people provide them with food, shelter, clothing, and education, among others. Others extend their services by following up and counselling those who have recovered and gone back to their original homes. Medical programmes have also been set in place to check the health of the children. By so doing, they are able to prescribe the necessary feeding habits of the children. Outreach programmes have not been left out. They aim at maintaining close relationship between the organization and the children. Conclusion Bus 174 is a documentary that is heavy laden with lessons, not only for the Brazilian, but also for all in general. Following the hijacking of the bus by a boy from a poor family bac kground, it is open that the incidence is a way of communicating to the world and applies to the oppressed, neglected, and the stigmatised. It is experienced by all countries and is commonly portrayed by street children. It has been proved effective since it has opened the ears and eyes of a variety of agencies devoted to caring the children. This on the other hand, has lowered cases of theft, drug abuse, and sexual harassments. Reference List Brussat, F., Brussat, M. (2009). Bus 174. New York. Charles, D. (1855). Household Words: Vol. 10, Bradbury press: India. Erving, G. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Prentice-Hall. Hayden, S. (2009). Factual Documentary Covered Hijacked Bus in Rio de Janeiro. Heatherton, et al, (2000). The Social Psychology of Stigma, The Guilford Press. Padilha, L. (2002). Bus 174. Golden Globes. Ransel, L. (1998). Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia. Princeton.

Technology and the Communication Process Research Paper

Technology and the Communication Process - Research Paper Example To gather information and review theories regarding communication processes, different academic websites, journals and books have been utilized to support arguments. How Communication Processes are influenced by the Use of Technology World has transformed into a global village, thanks to the arrival of a number of technological developments. These technological developments has enabled person sitting at one corner of the world to communicate with another person sitting at the opposite corner of the world. All of this is possible just because of gadgets, computers, internet and efforts to close the gap between people living on earth. It can be argued that in today’s era, all communication processes are based on technology, with the exception of face to face communication or speech based communication. From the beginning of the human race on earth, human has strived to develop methods and technologies that help them to keep a record of their imagination and thought processes. Fi rst, we used to have stone tablets which were replaced with the advent of the printing press and then with the emergence of computers. Thus, the communication processes adopted by the human race has been changed from time to time (Cuel & Ferrario, 2007). Before going into further detail, it is important to understand the communication process. ... The second step was the message which was named as intended message design which clarified the audience that it actually includes the purpose, language and priorities included as content in the message. The third step in Shannon and Weaver’s communication model was channel which was named as a medium of communication by Berlo. The last and fourth step was receiving of message at the receiver’s end which heavily depends upon the perception of the receiver. Here, the impact of technology on communication processes would be discussed with respect to an individual’s personal and professional life. First of all it need to be understood that communication carried out with the use of technology is referred to as mediated communication. If you are using a cell phone to send a message, it is mediated communication. If you are sending an email to communicate, it is mediated communication. Even if you are delivering your intended message through television to mass audiences , it is also called mediated communication. In our personal lives, we get engaged in communication processes for almost 18 hours of the day. If it was the 18th century, then a person who is engaged for 18 hours in communicating with people would go mad due to lack of facilitating gadgets available (Tomei, 2007). Imagine women of 18th century sitting in Europe wanted to send her beloved husband her picture to ease of his nerves during the tiring war that he is engaged in Caribbean. It would take a month or a couple of months for the picture to reach at desired destination as it will be carried through sea-route. At that time, people used sketches to make such communications and write a number of pages to express their feelings. Then came the

Horace Bushnell Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Horace Bushnell - Essay Example He was not exact, but he put God and man and the world into a relation that thought can accept while it goes on to state it more fully with ever growing knowledge. Other thinkers were moving in the same direction; he led the movement in New England, and wrought out a great deliverance. It was a work of superb courage. Hardly a theologian in his denomination stood by him, and nearly all pronounced against him" (as cited in http://www.nndb.com/people/184/000102875). An anti-Calvinist, he preached contrary to the theological notions of his time such ideas relating to the Trinity, the atonement, conversion, and the relations of the natural and the supernatural. He also opposes the notion that theology can be explained logically and absolutely just like any intellectual activity. He believes that individual believers have a case-to-case and unique spiritual experience differing from each other based on their unique individual spiritual make-up (Sklansky, 2002). Bushnell's major ideas and convictions are explained and contained in his four books entitled: Christian Nurture (1847), Nature and the Supernatural (1858), The Vicarious Sacrifice (1866), and God in Christ (1849). In Christian and Nature Bushnell discusses his opposition to revivalism and focuses the Christian thought on the youth. In this, he successfully influenced many minds. It explains the reasons why he does not agree with the emphasis the revivalists place on the conversion experience. In Nature and the Supernatural, he discusses miracles and promotes the possibility of humans to achieve supernatural qualities or the "supernaturalness of man." In addition, the book The Vicarious Sacrifice, contains his so-called "moral view" of the atonement of Christ contrasting it with the "governmental" and the "penal" or "satisfaction" theories. Moreover, in the book God in Christ, which contains an introductory entitled "Dissertation on Language as related to Thought," he is accused of being a heretic for he expresses a different view about the Trinity. He believes that the Godhead is not literally three but it is only human interpretation of the unfathomable greatness of God. Human, in contrast to God, sees God differently because of his/her inferior comprehension of the supreme deity (Sklansky, 2002). It is said to have been published after his "mystical experience that illumined the gospel for him." Although there were times when he irked others so much, he was spared of trial because his church severed its links from the local group that may have power to press charges against him. In other words, his church stood autonomously of any association or the rules of any denominational group. Furthermore, he was able to respond to his critics in his book Christ in Theology (1851). In it he argues that spiritual facts cannot be discussed precisely by human language and logic. They can only be expressed in "approximate and poetical language." He concludes by saying that "an adequate dogmatic theology cannot exist" (Sklansky, 2002). It is in this book where Bushnell expounds and defends his position about language in theology, saying that much of it is metaphorical in nature. However, Horace Bushnell proves that he still adheres to and believes the divinity of Christ as expressed in his writing entitled The Character of Jesus, forbidding his possible (Sklansky, 2002). As a