Is knowledge justified true belief Essay Example

Is knowledge justified true belief Essay Example Is knowledge justified true belief Paper Is knowledge justified true belief Paper Epistemology is amongst the most important and most debated areas of Philosophy; Defining knowledge itself has proved to be one of the most pressing problems. Knowledge has often been described as justified true belief; This tradition can be observed to have been applied as far back as the times of Plato, and claims that there are three criteria that must be satisfied in order for an individual to possess knowledge. This is known as the tripartite theory of knowledge. Following the requirements of this theory, if we believe something, have justification for such a belief, and it is true, then our belief is knowledge. 1 The allegory of a ladder aptly describes the logic behind the tripartite theory of knowledge; the bottom of the ladder representing ignorance, and the top, knowledge. A belief must overcome each rung of the ladder, thus bringing it closer to knowledge. The first step is an unjustified belief. At the next step, the belief becomes justified, but may still prove to be true or false and therefore cannot constitute knowledge. The next step is an unjustified true belief; hereby truth has been found but there is no reasoning behind it. The last stage, when accomplished, establishes a justified true belief. The believer knows their belief to be true and has justification for this; hence the believer has achieved knowledge. 2This seems logical and straightforward, but it is debatable as to whether this can really be praised with describing the full extent of what knowledge is. Gettier most notably expanded upon why this theory is slightly dubious by pointing out that a justified true belief may not actually be what we would commonly refer to as knowledge by pointing out a number of examples of justified true beliefs that were not knowledge. 3 Thus, it would seem, the tripartite theory, fails. However, by expanding upon the notions of truth and justification it might be possible for find some way of agreeing with the tripartite theory post Gettier. On the basis of the tripartite theory, to be considered true knowledge, a belief must be justifiable4. If we take the meaning of a justifiable belief to be one we are within our rights of holding5 we must question our justification for such a conclusion. Therefore, it must surely call the benefits of defining a belief as justifiable into question, that is to say, it leads us to consider whether justifiable is really a term worthy of a rung on the allegorical ladder to true knowledge. It also means that, in fact, any justifications we might propose in search of certain knowledge, have to justify the means of their justification; therefore leading to a seemingly infinite regression. To avoid this, one might suggest that there must be some form of basis that we may rely on without questioning; This basis of beginning with a priori principles which we must believe to be true prior to experience is the stance taken by rationalists. However, many Empiricists have questioned whether such a priori principles can actually exist. Since our experience is so limited, it seems valid to suggest that, in fact, we can only ever say what has been the case as far as we and others may account for. For the Empiricists, our knowledge is based on reasoning, through a process of deduction7. Therefore, we gain knowledge from what we might call a common denominator perceived from a range of experiences. Hereby, for the likes of Aristotle, true knowledge is what we gain from our reasoning on the basis of our experiences in the world. However, this idea of basing knowledge, although partially, on perception, also seems to call many things into question. Surely, therefore, it seems safer to suggest that knowledge could merely be what one subjectively believes to be true even if such a proposition would deem the idea of knowledge as less worthy. Perception and observation can be understood as conveying information about what is inputted to our senses. The result of these processes, or output, is considered to be a belief; such a belief may constitute knowledge. However, it would seem that much of our knowledge does come to us through our senses, adding to the suggestion of it subjective nature. Although the way that we perceive the world may be, in part, determined by the world, it is also heavily determined by us. We are not able to receive information about the world passively, and arguably contribute much to our own experiences. Thus implying an unreliable basis for knowledge and leading to questioning of whether true knowledge can actually exist at all. The notion that knowledge or certainty can never be absolute has been entertained by philosophers for years; in particular, certainty of anything that is based wholly on sense experience8. Throughout the history of philosophy there have been numerous arguments portraying the unreliability of sense experience that are often hard to refute; one of the most memorable being that anything we gather from what we experience through our senses can never be deemed reliable as to what is actually beyond such appearances. Sensory skeptics have highlighted this fact that that any knowledge gained from perceptions is biased by how things appear solely to us and that we cannot know what causes those appearances. Thus, any explanation of knowledge that involves experience, or sense knowledge, is called into question. Throughout the history of philosophy, sensory skeptics have argued that we perceive only things as they appear to us and cannot know what, if anything, causes those appearances. Thus, if there is sense knowledge involved in a theory of knowledge from that stance of the skeptic, it will always be personal, direct and inconsistent as any conclusions we make from this very personal input are, therefore, subject to error as we have no way of knowing whether our inferences from our perceptions of the world are actually correct. This case could lead us towards Platos argument of true knowledge that states that it is to be found outside the realms of the physical world. However, in turn, surely we must question the worthiness of something outside our own experience as it can never be experienced and therefore has questionable value. It would seem a logical conclusion that all we can ever claim to know must be on the basis of our own experience. Thus we begin this deductive process of acquiring knowledge at birth where the mind is, what John Locke referred to as a Tabula Rasa,9 Therefore, knowledge could be more simply defined at the output of our reasoning on the basis of our experiences. In conclusion, knowledge, even if we are to question its certainty or its basis of what has been called assumption, is information that is both true and justified in as far as it is possible to draw any conclusions on the matter. In response to Gettier, if we have a belief that is true and we can find justification for it, even if the justification is false, we still, arguably come to the same truthful conclusion. We might add to the tripartite theory that true knowledge also requires that the justifications made to also be true, that is to say, there must be no errors is the reasoning of the individual. Although when subject to the challenges of skepticism as to the concept of knowledge itself, as far as we can understand, the tripartite theory does produce as adequate account of what knowledge is and logical way or establishing it. Therefore, knowledge is justifiable true belief that has been based on experienced and justified by human reasoning. Any definition of knowledge without these qualifying factors is beyond the realms of our experience and, therefore, arguably beyond our understanding and therefore of little value.

English Grammar in Context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English Grammar in Context - Essay Example When I compared the two analysis between the spoken text and the written text, I was able to realize that there were several differences between the two texts. This is because of spoken text and written text both have different grammatical structures. Written language is significantly more complex than spoken language. This because written text uses the more complex grammatical structure as compared to spoken words. The written text consists of 126 words with 20 noun clauses as compared to 201 words with 27 noun clauses from the spoken text. Further analysis proved that the spoken text had 33 noun phrases and the spoken text had 41 with the first 126 words only having 30. From the comparison, it can be concluded that written texts are shorter than spoken texts. Written texts also comprise more complex, longer phrases and words. [142 words]. A comparison between the two texts written and spoken reveals that there is a large discrepancy between the two. To start with written text is qu ite different from spoken text due the lexical density and complexity. This means that the words in a written text hold more content in per clause as compared to spoken text. For example, this text â€Å"and we were determined to launch this service† carries more content when compared to. The section of coordinators reveals that spoken text has more speaking requires more coordination between the many independent clauses that the speaker uses. As a result, there was eight coordination in the spoken text as compared to three in written text.... S 3 Logica’s SMS solution 4 the new messaging 5 GSM subscribers 6 send receive e-mails 7 mobile Phone 8 demand SMS In Oman 9 OmanTel the new text messaging 10 the primary Benefits 11 that User’s 12 greater accessibility 13 increased Communication 14 business personal use 15 text Messaging Fastest growing segments 16 the Region’s telecommunication market 17 this service 18 an innovative e-mail 19 GSM subscribers 20 general manager Discussion When it comes to written text, there is an enormous level of grammatical complexity. Words are systematically arranged, and all parts of noun clauses can be clearly identified. It is also common for written texts to have complete sentences that have a definite meaning. The above text on OmanTel network contains 126 words. After analysing the text, I was able to identify 20 noun clauses, 33 noun phrases, one pre-modification phrase, seven determiners, nine describers 14 classifiers and three post-modifiers. The noun such as â⠂¬Å"As part of the new text-messaging service† and â€Å"GSM subscribers in Oman†. Some of the noun clauses contain single noun phrases while most contain two noun clauses, for example â€Å"And the primary benefits†. There are other few noun clauses that contain up to three noun phrases such as â€Å"With Logica being the key element to the success of the new service†. [146 words] Noun phrase Pre-modification determiners describers classifiers Post-modification Written text 33 1 7 9 14 3 2: Spoken Text analysis Lori: Uhh, I came across this really funny website the other day†¦ It’s, umm, designed to where people can anonymously send an e-mail to an annoying coworker†¦ Michael: Mmm hmm†¦ L: Saying things like, â€Å"You really need to use deodorant [laughter]†¦but we’re too shy to tell you†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ and they,

Critical tussle between Democrats and Republicans Essay

Critical tussle between Democrats and Republicans - Essay Example In the recent past, the U.S government found itself in a shutdown status. The government shutdown, as Weisman and Jeremy describe, was caused by a critical tussle between democrats and republicans in the congress. This article essentially fits into the critical thinking field of deductive reasoning and/or argument. To start with, deductive arguments begin at a generalized platform, after which valid and logical conclusions are made from the premises of the argument. This critical thinking approach is applicable to Weisman and Jeremy’s article.The two authors make a claim that links government shutdown to the budget impasse. The presentation of the claim occurs in a general setting, thus requiring the deduction of what exactly caused the shutdown with regard to the budget impasse. In this respect, the article explores diverse aspects of the matter, with an aim to show that the government shutdown due to an impasse that was primarily budget-based. The standoff between democrats and republicans is discussed and subsequently linked to the issue in question.In light of the argument made in the article, the premise validly and logically informs the conclusion. The cause of the government shutdown was purely budgetary. On the same note, both democrats and republicans were the primary parties in the premise of the argument. Moving from a generalized statement to the valid and logical conclusion of what exactly happened, the article is fundamentally informed by critical thinking concepts.

Site Visit Essay Example for Free

Site Visit Essay Human Services is a broad field for workers who assist individuals with various types of issues or problems; whether the assistance is housing, mental health, vocational, or elderly services. These workers are housed throughout many organizations and agencies that have department in which they cater to specific needs. Some organizations have departments and programs that specialize in behavioral and cognitive–behavioral techniques to further address behavioral issues or problems. The Children’s Village (CV) is a non-profit human service organization and their mission is to work in partnership with families to help society’s most vulnerable children so that they become educationally proficient, economically productive, and socially responsible members of their communities (The Children’s Village, 2013. ) The type of families CV caters to are foster care and adoption and therapeutic children. In locating this organization online, I spoke with one on the Masters Social Workers (MSW), Benia E. Thomas who further explained the type of behavioral or cognitive-behavioral therapy they provide for the clients served. The Children’s Village employs group behavioral therapy geared toward behavioral modification to adolescents ages 11-21. The types of behaviors the children display are Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and other conduct disorders. According to Understanding ADHD (2013), â€Å"ADHD is one of the most common childhood psychiatric conditions, affecting 9.5% of school-aged children in the United States.† ADHD is a psychiatric disorder as OCD is another disorder affecting children and promoting disruptive behaviors. According to Internal OCD Foundation (2012), â€Å"Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a disorder of the brain and behavior. OCD causes severe anxiety in those affected. OCD involves both obsessions and compulsions (para. 1.) The techniques CV employs at their organization helps change these potentially self-destructing behaviors such as ADHD and OCD. Behavioral therapy is also called behavioral modification or cognitive behavioral therapy. Medical professionals use this type of therapy to replace bad habits with good ones. The therapy also helps you cope with difficult situations (Healthline, 2013.) This type of treatment is used on the children who have faced difficult times within the home with their biological parents and assists them with any behaviors stemmed from removal from one home to the next. In cases like these children can become very angry, blame themselves, academically failing, and act out differently for attention. Foster children often face multiple adversities putting them at risk for problems in social, emotional, and behavioral adjustment. Some of the risks are experienced prior to placement into foster or adoptive care, such as drug exposure, maltreatment, and institutional care (Adoption and Foster Placement, 2008.) In discussing the population this program participates in, the effectiveness of the interventions is measured by the team of therapeutic social workers at CV. Therapy techniques and approaches must be effective so the children can live normal lives in the community and when placed in other homes. The types of interventions used on the clients at CV are used by a number of therapeutic social workers who work hard at achieving long-term goals for the children. For example, if a child displays disruptive behavior in school and is acting in an aggressive manner at his or her home several techniques and interventions are used to eliminate or calm the situation to a minimal. Techniques such as: homework charts, behavior charts, listening, communication, and documentation of the behaviors are implemented by the social worker or therapist to further allow the child to discuss what is bothering him or her (Benia E. Thomas, personal communication, September 27, 2013.) The most effective technique used by the social workers at CV is the behavioral modification chart. According to Bach, PhD and McCraken, PhD, LCSW (n.d) â€Å"Behavioral treatment is concerned with the analysis and change of behaviors. Thorough assessment is an integral part of any behavioral intervention or behavioral assessment.† Examples of behavior modification that can be used to increase positive behaviors are praise and approval, positive reinforcement, awards, and self -monitoring. The technique used in the behavioral therapy seems to work for some of the children, as they display change when they come in for therapy sessions with the social workers. At this current time the CV only uses behavioral therapy as a technique to assist with cognitive behaviors. Children’s Village is a non-profit organization that has not received the adequate funding to support other programs that would be suitable for the organization at this time, but it is something the organization is interested in later on once funded. Although there are not any plans for other programs, play therapy is used for children (ages 2-10). According to Association For Play Therapy (2013), â€Å"Play therapy refers to a large number of treatment methods, all applying the therapeutic benefits of play. Play therapy differs from regular play in that the therapist helps children to address and resolve their own problems† (para. What is play therapy?.) This type of therapy helps the children act of scenarios with playing and using objects such as dolls and coloring to further explain behaviors. The other models and techniques used at Children’s Village are Functional Family Therapy/Child Welfare (FCT-CW) and Multisystemic Therapy (MST). FFT-CW is a family-based prevention program that helps families make positive changes to their households and MST is an evidence-based program that helps families manage out of control children (Preventative Services, 2013). These two types of models are used in CV to better assist the children and the foster parents who require support from the organization. MST and FCT-CW is form of support that the organization implements to their children and foster parents to ensure safety and structure. In conclusion, the Children’s Village is a foster care and adoption agency that employs behavioral therapy to the children they place in homes. The children are 11-21 and have disorders such as ADHD and OCD among other behavior dysfunctions. These techniques used assist the children with the various behaviors they display as a result of removal from biological families and placement into homes of strangers. When the children display these cognitive behaviors in school or the community behavioral modification charts are used to keep track of the behaviors and monitor improvement. When improvement is noticed the social workers reward the children with movie tickets or other praises they find effective for each individual child. Each behavior is treated differently and addresses in a manner where different techniques are used as well. Children’s Village would like to expand their cognitive behavioral depart, but because of funding they are limited. This agency has displayed the use of the methods and techniques used to change behaviors References Adoption and Foster Placement. (2008). Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development, 25-31. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/science/article/pii/B9780123708779000025 Association for Play Therapy. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.a4pt.org/ps.index.cfm?ID=1653 Bach, PhD, P., McCraken, PhD, LCSW, S. G. (n.d). Best Practice Guidelines for Behavioral Interventions. Behavioral Health Recovery Management Project. Healthline. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.healthline.com/health/behavioral-therapy Preventative services. (2013). Retrieved from http://childrensvillage.org/nyc-based-programs/preventive-services/ The Childrens Village. (2013). Retrieved from http://childrensvillage.org/about/mission/ Understanding ADHD. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.intuniv.com/attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder/?utm_source=googleutm_medium=cpcutm_term=adhdutm_campaign=condition

Teachers Meeting The Challenges of Student Disabilities Essay -- Educa

In this chapter, we discussed the numerous challenges that teachers face while teaching students with different disabilities. It was found that barring a few teachers who had knowledge of the exact needs of these students, majority of the teachers deployed methods that they felt would assist learning for them. Modifications in teaching methods were undertaken based on the nature of the students’ disability and the demands of subject taught. In case of some government colleges, parents were reportedly assisting in the laboratory due the absence of support staff. In the case of students with visual impairments and/or learning disabilities, repetition was found to be the most favoured method to explain everything, from diagrams in economics to sociological concepts. However, implementation of this method was time-consuming. While, in general, students with disabilities were encouraged to seek help from the teachers beyond the class timing, it was observed that students with learning disabilities rarely did so, possibly due to the social stigma attached to their disability. With regard to teaching students with learning disabilities, it was found that a majority of teachers did not take any particular efforts towards addressing the needs of these students may be because their disabilities were hidden or invisible in nature. Contrast to the lack of information on how to cater to students with learning disabilities, a majority of the teachers were able to adjudge some measures as facilitating learning among students with visual impairments such as encourage students to sit in the front row, read aloud any text that was presented in visual format or making the study material available in soft copy. The onus, however, was on the stude... ...7–24. Reddy, Raghava C. 2011. ‘From Impairment to Disability and Beyond: Critical Explorations in Disability Studies’, Sociological Bulletin, 60 (2): 287–306. Sharma, Umesh, Dennis Moore and Sanjeev Sonawane. 2009. ‘Attitudes and Concerns of Pre-service Teachers regarding Inclusion of Students with Disabilities into Regular Schools in Pune, India’, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (3): 319–31. Singal, Nidhi. 2005. ‘Mapping the Field of Inclusive Education: A Review of the Indian Literature’, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 9 (4): 331–50. ––––. 2006. ‘Inclusive Education in India: International concept, national interpretation’, International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53 (3): 351–69. ––––. 2010. ‘Doing Disability Research in a Southern Context: Challenges and Possibilities’, Disability & Society, 25 (4): 415–26.

Case Analysis on Singapore International Airlines Essay

Apart from my efforts, the success of any projects mainly depends on the encouragement and guidelines from many others. I take this opportunity to express my heartily appreciation to those who have been involved in the success of completion of this paper. Especially, I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Professor David T. Methe of Institute of Business and Accounting at Kwansei Gakuin Uuiversity for offering me tremendous theoretical knowledge and the opportunity to have analysis on the case of Singapore International Airline as the final examination. The analysis process with the overall studies in the course of corporate strategy offered in this Spring semester provides me the opportunity to study the general management and to develop the perspective of a manager viewing from the corporate level in an organization. Abstract Singapore International Airline (SIA) as described in the case being one of the leading top airlines in the international industry is facing several competitive issues which are turning its situation with challenges of redefining strategies for its competitiveness. This paper will examine and analyze the case of â€Å"Singapore International Airline: Preparing for Turbulence Ahead†. It details with the internal and external environment analysis and how SIA strategies keep its success over the past. Finally, recommendations for SIA dealing with its problems and strategies for it to take in which to further increase its competitiveness as a global player. Introduction  Singapore International Airlines (SIA) as stated in the case is being one of the top leading airline companies in the world with well records in terms of its operational performance and its profitability history. According to the case, SIA has started its business since the split from Malaysia airline in 1972, and soon after it expanded its service destinations to over 40 countries all over places in the world. The company had developed with nique features that keep itself competitive within its industry which its competitors envied its perfect performances and looking forward to duplicate those features. Although, the SIA had been successfully operated through many decades, it is now facing the serious problem of demotivation of employees from severe layoffs due to SARS outbreak and Iraq war in the year 2003 at the recorded time of the case. SIA at this moment is taking serious concern of strategic movement to take in which for it to sustain its competitiveness and its top leading positions in its future. Despites the success experienced by SIA, the company is now facing the challenges of staying competitive in its industry. This paper will be mainly analyzing the case by defining the background of SIA and its industry with its key factors for success. In addition to that, the strategies and various resources that SIA used for keeping its competitiveness and how it influences the airline industry will also discuss on the following. Finally, a few recommendations for possible movements that SIA can take in which further maintain its success will also be given.

Litmus Paper and the Litmus Test

You can make paper test strips to determine the pH of an aqueous solution by treating filter paper with any of the common pH indicators. One of the first indicators used for this purpose was litmus. Litmus paper is paper that has been treated with a specific indicator—a mixture of 10 to 15 natural dyes obtained from lichens (mainly Roccella tinctoria) that turns red in response to acidic conditions (pH 7). When the pH is neutral (pH 7), then the dye is purple. History The first known use of litmus was around 1300 CE by Spanish alchemist Arnaldus de Villa Nova. The blue dye has been extracted from lichens since the 16th century. The word litmus comes from the old Norse word for dye or color. While all litmus paper acts as pH paper, the opposite is not true. Its incorrect to refer to all pH paper as litmus paper. Fast Facts: Litmus Paper Litmus paper is a type of pH paper made by treating the paper with natural dyes from lichens.The litmus test is performed by placing a small drop of sample onto the colored paper.Usually, litmus paper is either red or blue. Red paper turns blue when the pH is alkaline, while blue paper turns red when the pH turns acidic.While litmus paper is most often used to test the pH of liquids, it can be used to test gases if the paper is dampened with distilled water before exposure to the gas. Litmus Test To perform the test, place a drop of liquid sample on a small strip of paper or dip a piece of litmus paper in a small specimen of the sample. Ideally, dont dip litmus paper in an entire container of a chemical; the dye could contaminate a potentially valuable sample. The litmus test is a quick method of determining whether a liquid or gaseous solution is acidic or basic (alkaline). The test can be performed using litmus paper or an aqueous solution containing litmus dye. Initially, litmus paper is either red or blue. The blue paper changes to red, indicating acidity somewhere between the pH range of 4.5 to 8.3. (Note, however, that 8.3 is alkaline.)  Red litmus paper can indicate alkalinity with a change to blue. In general, litmus paper is red below a pH of 4.5 and blue above a pH of 8.3. If the paper turns purple, this indicates the pH is near neutral. Red paper that does not change color indicates the sample is an acid. Blue paper that does not change color indicates the sample is a base. Remember, acids and bases refer only to aqueous (water-based) solutions, so pH paper wont change color in non-aqueous liquids, such as vegetable oil. Litmus paper may be dampened with distilled water to give a color change for a gaseous sample. Gases change the color of the entire litmus strip since the whole surface is exposed. Neutral gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, do not change the color of the pH paper. Litmus paper that has changed from red to blue can be reused as blue litmus paper. Paper that has changed from blue to red can be reused as red litmus paper. Limitations The litmus test is quick and simple, but it suffers from a few limitations. First, its not an accurate indicator of pH. It does not yield a numerical pH value. Instead, it roughly indicates whether a sample is an acid or a base. Second, the paper can change colors for other reasons besides an acid-base reaction. For example, blue litmus paper turns white in chlorine gas. This color change is due to bleaching of the dye from hypochlorite ions, not acidity/basicity. Alternatives to Litmus Paper Litmus paper is handy as a general acid-base indicator, but you can get much more specific results if you use an indicator that has a more narrow test range or that offers a wider color range. Red cabbage juice, for example, changes color in response to pH all the way from red (pH 2) through blue at neutral pH to greenish-yellow at pH 12, plus you are more likely to find cabbage at the local grocery store than lichen. The dyes orcein  and azolitmin yield results comparable to those of litmus paper.